Miscellaneous - 2

kodimaram at Sabarimala temple

Ambalam 

Renowned epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan once proposed that a particular Indus symbol—depicting a pillar mounted on a platform (Figure 1)—could represent a pillared assembly hall used by the common people. Intriguingly, the Malayalam word pothikam refers to the base or foundation of a pillar. If we accept the widely discussed theory that the Indus language was a proto-Dravidian (or Malayalam) tongue—potentially a precursor to Tamil—then interpreting this symbol as pothikam becomes another plausible linguistic bridge. 

But are there cultural parallels to support this hypothesis? Indeed, there are. In Malayalam, pothi can also refer to an ambalam, a small shrine or temple often found along pathways, serving as both a spiritual and communal resting place (vazhi-ambalam). The presence of a kodimaram (flag post) in front of temples today—essentially a pillar standing on a platform—visually resembles the ancient Indus depiction, further reinforcing this connection. Additionally, a peepal tree placed on a raised platform (thara) is still a common gathering spot in Kerala temples/villages. These trees are sometimes referred to as pothi maram, and the Sanskrit Bodhi—associated with Buddha's enlightenment—may trace its etymology to the same root. 

Interestingly, pothi (as in cheepothi) is also the name of the deity enshrined in such temples. The Sanskrit word Bhagavathi, used for the goddess, may even be a linguistic loan from this term. The pathaka is a temple flag hoisted on the pothika (flag post). Pothuval (pothu-al) is community in Kerala has traditionally been closely associated with temple (pothi) activities. The term pothu in Malayalam still means “common” or “shared,” 

Finally, the legend of the sage Agastya (Indus priest-ruler), believed to have led the southward migration of the Indus people, ties the narrative together. He is said to have settled in the Agasthya Malai range—home to the peak called Pothigai, again echoing the word pothikam. These linguistic and cultural links suggest that the Indus symbol in question may indeed reference a temple or a public meeting place, underscoring the deep-rooted continuity between the Indus civilization and South Indian traditions. 

Figure 1(pothikam)

Cheran (as an occupational identity)

The word Chera in Malayalam generally refers to a reptile, particularly a snake, associated with mountainous terrain — giving rise to my interpretation of Cheran as a snake worshipper. We also saw that Cherans might have been Dravidian migrants from the Indus Valley who settled in Kerala’s highlands after the civilization's decline.

While this is one plausible origin of the word, Iravatham Mahadevan proposes a compelling alternative. He draws attention to an Indus symbol (figure 2) resembling the Sumerian plough with a yoke (figure 3), which he deciphers as cer. In Malayalam, cer (or er) denotes a pair of yoked oxen — derived from cherkkuka, meaning "to join." Given the Indus language’s proto-Malayalam characteristics, it’s possible that the Sanskrit yugam (a pair) and even the English yoke may have distant connections to this root.

Agricultural terminology in Malayalam supports this link: ser referred to a traditional unit of grain measurement, erma described the act of first ploughing, and erppadam denoted the land prepared for cultivation. cher referred to the fertile mud of paddy fields, and cheruka implied scattering or winnowing grains. This linguistic trail suggests that the Cheran identity could have stemmed from their agrarian heritage — as granary custodians, tax collectors, or food suppliers. Legendary king Uthiyan Cheralathan is remembered for feeding warriors in the Mahabharata, earning the epithet Perum Choru Uthiyan, further reinforcing this theory.

The plough symbol, frequently appearing as a terminal sign in Indus inscriptions, is thought by Iravatham Mahadevan to represent a title or epithet — possibly identifying someone as a farmer or a tax collector (collecting agricultural levies, often measured in units called Ser/Cer). Some scholars suggest that the Indus civilization functioned primarily as an agrarian society, with its script evolving to serve administrative needs such as tracking taxes and grain storage. Given its brevity and limited expressive range, the script was likely not designed for artistic expression like poetry or storytelling. Taking all this into account, it's quite plausible that surnames like Cheran originated as designations tied to agricultural duties or societal roles.

Cheruman

A second, equally fascinating angle arises from the Malayalam word cher(u), meaning "mud” a reference to the rich soil of the paddy fields. This word is embedded in the term Cheruman, historically used to identify the Pulayan caste, traditional rice cultivators of Kerala. The Pulayan identity likely stems from their worship of the partridge (pullu), a totemic symbol — hence Pulayan. But their occupational identity as paddy farmers may have led to the parallel term Cheruman. This dual nomenclature — one religious, one vocational — echoes an idea explored in earlier essays: that Indus people may have multiple identities, one tied to belief and the other to profession. While the two identities likely intersect to a large extent, we cannot say with certainty that they are entirely synonymous.

Balabhadra and the Plough of Nanchinad

The link between agriculture and identity continues into myth. Nanchinad — the fertile region corresponding to present-day Kanyakumari (Thovalai and Agastheeswaram) — derives from nanch/nanchil, meaning plough, and was once part of the Chera kingdom. Given the Cheras’ agricultural legacy, this etymology makes perfect sense.

Remarkably, Nachilan is also a title associated with Balabhadra, elder brother of Krishna and deity of agriculture, whose weapon was the plough (halayudha). A specific Indus symbol (figure 4) featuring a plough (nachil) alongside the crab glyph (earlier interpreted as idya or aya) may allude to him. The figure (figure 5) of a five-pronged weapon (earlier interpreted as lord) paired with the aya symbol could then represent the Ayarkon — Krishna himself, lord of the cowherds and protector of the Aya people.

Figure 2 (Indus plough symbol) 

Figure 3 - Cuneiform symbol (plough with a yoke)

  

            Figure 4 (Balarama)      

  

        Figure 5 (Krishna)     

Pereumal 

In earlier discussions, we examined a distinctive five-pronged weapon-like symbol (figure 6) found in the Indus script and proposed that it may signify nil — meaning "great" or "supreme” potentially pointing to Nil(a)kantan, an epithet of Lord Shiva (the Great Lord or Mahadeva). However, a further reflection reveals that this symbol might also reference Lord Vishnu.

In Malayalam, words like netum and perum both carry connotations of greatness or largeness. Thus, the figure could be interpreted as Perum-al — literally, the Great One. This term is deeply embedded in both royal and divine contexts. Perumal was a title for Chera kings, such as Cheraman Perumal, and it is also a well-known name for Lord Vishnu in Tamil and Malayalam traditions.

The symbol might also align with Netum, meaning tall or exalted, as seen in names like Netum Cheral Athan, a renowned Chera king. When followed by a human or warrior figure (earlier interpreted as kandan), the combination (figure 6) begins to suggest yet another identity — possibly Nedum-kandan or the Great Warrior. This name survives today in place names like Nedumkandam in Kerala’s Idukki district, an area that also houses ancient Mahadeva temples — further supporting the Shiva connection.

Yet another layer of meaning is revealed when this kandan figure is shown enclosed within a serpent-like symbol (figure 7) — often understood as representing Chera. This imagery could very well depict a Chera warrior-lord. 

Chaturbhuja(n)

Adding to this interpretation is another intriguing combination: the five-pronged weapon followed by a fish with four strokes — which I believe also represents Vishnu. The fish is often associated with the divine. Vishnu was incarnated as Matsya, the fish avatar. The four strokes, once thought to be rays, now appear more convincingly to represent Chaturbhuja, the four-armed form commonly associated with Vishnu, further strengthening this identification. Interestingly, another variant of the fish symbol — a fish beneath a roof-like shape (Figure 9) — may point to Shiva. While this was earlier interpreted as a protective canopy or structure, it now seems plausible that the 'roof' actually represents a mountain. This subtle reinterpretation suggests the image may symbolize the god of the mountain, a clear allusion to Shiva, who is traditionally believed to dwell in the Himalayas.

                                                                    

Figure 6 (the great lord/warrior) - Perumal, Nedumkandan

Figure 7 (great Chera warrior)

                                                                            

                                                                    Figure 8 (Chathur-bhuja/Vishnu)

                                                                  Figure 9 - fish variants 

Mohiniyattam

Further supporting the above line of interpretation is the symbol of the four-stroked fish followed by an arrow sign (figure 10). The arrow functions as a feminine honorific suffix, suggesting that the combination could represent a divine female form. If the four-stroked fish symbolize Vishnu, then its feminine version would be Mohini — the enchanting female avatar of Vishnu.

According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu assumed the form of Mohini to retrieve the Amruth (elixir of immortality) from the Asuras (demons). After the ocean was churned and the nectar of immortality emerged, an asura disguised himself among the devas and attempted to consume it. Vishnu, in his alluring form as Mohini, captivated the asuras and tricked them into surrendering the nectar, ensuring it reached the rightful hands of the gods.

The legacy of Mohini lives on in Mohiniyattam, the classical dance form of Kerala. The name itself is derived from this mythic figure and the dance is known for its graceful, fluid movements that reflect Mohini’s beauty and charm. Studies of Indus Valley culture suggest that a devadasi-like system may have existed at the time — a tradition that possibly continued into the temple-attending Achi communities of Kerala and influenced classical art forms like Mohiniyattam.

This theory finds further resonance in the iconic bronze figurine of a dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro — possibly an early devadasi. In Malayalam, the word pāva also means a woman. Historical references, such as those from the Kollam Rameswara Kshetra, mention Tiruppavaikkuttu, a performance tradition associated with devadasi women. All these suggest that female-led sacred dance, possibly emerging during the Harappan era, continued through temple traditions in Kerala, leaving their artistic imprint on forms like Mohiniyattam.

                                                                       

                                                                Figure 10 (Mohini?)

Arana

Interestingly, the skink — known in Malayalam as arana — is endemic to Kerala. With its snake-like appearance and sinuous movement, it is plausible that this reptile was also revered by the ancient snake-worshipping communities, including the Cheras. Much like chera, the term ara too has associations with serpents and reptiles in local traditions.

In Sangam literature, the term Aramakalir appears frequently, referring to divine or semi-divine maidens. The word Aramakal possibly denotes women engaged in serpent worship, most likely within the Chera or Nair communities.  These women may have held religious roles as priestesses or attendants in temple rituals (not necessarily limited to snake deities) — much like the Valia Amma, the chief priestess of the renowned Mannarasala Snake Temple in Kerala.

In a previous article (Indus script and the Muthassis of Kerala), I mentioned the head priestesses of temples in Indus cities, who were considered the divine embodiments of the goddess. So, this may represent a cultural continuity from the Indus Valley civilization, where female attendants held significant spiritual roles — a tradition that appears to have continued through the Nair Achi devadasis of Kerala.

Velakkaran

In earlier discussions, we examined the religious and occupational identities of the Indus Valley people. Another compelling aspect is their geographical identity, which appears to have significantly influenced the formation of later South Indian dynasties.

The Indus cities were broadly divided into two zones: the citadel or fort complex, and the gridded lower city. Residents within the fortified walls—referred to in Malayalam as choru—were known as Choras, possibly the ancestors of the Chozhas or Cholas. In contrast, those from the grided lower city, known as panthi or vari, were associated with the Pandyan lineage, hence the term Panthiyan (Pandyan).

Another interpretation of this geographical identity comes from the term Kokar. The prefix Ko (as in Ko-dai) signifies mountains, suggesting that the Kokar were originally mountain dwellers who later settled in the lower city, forming the working class. Meanwhile, the Velir—elites from the open plains (veli or velim pradesam in Malayalam)—held administrative and military roles within the citadel.

Following the decline of the Indus cities, both groups migrated southward and played pivotal roles in establishing the Chola, Chera, and Pandya kingdoms. Historical records indicate that the Cholas had two classes of retainers: the Vela(i)kkar and the Kolar—elite corps of the army who served as personal bodyguards to the king. Tamil inscriptions refer to these groups as Valam kai vela(i)kkar and Kai-k-kolar, respectively.

Interestingly, the Velakkar are never recorded as serving under the Pandyas, possibly due to a social hierarchy rooted in the urban structure of the Indus civilization. The Pandyas, associated with the lower city, were considered socially inferior by the Velir elite.

Interpretations of symbols from the Indus period seem to support this distinction. One symbol (figure 11) depicts five fingers of the right hand spread out—likely representing the Velakkar. Another shows a closed fist, which in Malayalam is kolluka (to grasp), possibly referring to the Kol-ar. Even today, terms like valam kai (right hand) and idam kai (left hand) may reflect these ancient traditions.

The region known as Velnad or Venad (land of the Velir), a medieval kingdom under the later Cheras, further suggests cultural continuity. Another link is the title Kolkaran, still used among the Mala Pulaya (hill Pulaya) tribes. Tribal chiefs in this community have assistants called Kolkkaran or Varijan—terms that may trace back to the working-class groups of the Indus cities.

Caste names such as Velan and Velalar in Kerala may also have originated from the Velakkar serving class during the era of the Muvendar (Chera, Chola, Pandya). These linguistic and cultural threads point to a remarkable continuity from the Indus Valley Civilization to early Kerala society.

                                                                    

Figure 11 (Velakkar and Kolar)

References

Mahadevan, I. (1970). Dravidian Parallels in Proto Indian Script. Journal of Tamil studies.

Tribes in Kerala 2011 Census. (n.d.). Arun D Paul.